The 6 P-S of Empowerment work like a bridge providing students with opportunities to learn curricular outcomes as well as develop skills in twenty-first century competencies. They provide a way for teachers to create learning environments that are not dragged down by standardized tests, scripted programming, and teacher centred learning.
The 6-Ps: purpose, projects, passions, play, peers, portofolios of kindergarten help students gain skills in critical and creative thinking, problem-solving, and communication and provide opportunities for adults to assess where students are at within those competencies. They also provide opportunities for students to self-assess their skills. The 6-Ps are supported by learning theory and they also provide opportunities for students to develop self-regulation skills and develop executive functioning skills. They are also developmentally appropriate and are based within the natural dispositions of children.
Purpose
Using topics and activities that have a purpose beyond simply learning facts is supported by learning theory. Bransford et al. (2000) point out that “often there is only superficial coverage of facts before moving on to the next topic; there is little time to develop important organizing ideas" (National Research Council, 2000, p. 42). “Memorizing facts and formulas does not provide context or reasons for learning. When students solve a set of disconnected problems, they often end up with disconnected knowledge, without an understanding of why they were learning it or how to apply it to new situations (Resnick, 2017, p. 53). Bransford et al. (2000) found that students often struggled to know which formula to use in different situations. They also found that transfer of knowledge to new situations was negatively affected by the use of memorization. They state, “transfer is affected by the degree to which people learn with understanding, rather than merely memorizing sets of facts or following a fixed set of procedures" (p. 55). Learning that is tied to a purpose, to a reason is conditionalized which prevents it from becoming inert.
ProjectsStudents in primary grades need to be exposed to critical inquiry practices in order to develop the skill sets required in many fields of research Bransfird et al. (2000) state, "although students scored very well on facts about history, they were largely unacquainted with models of inquiry, with real historical thinking. They had no way of making sense of the contradictory claims” (p. 42). Through the use of critical inquiry projects, students gain exoerience in skills such as historical thinking and develop a stronger understanding of foundational principles. Bransford et al. (2000) also found that "younger students, taught by the inquiry-based approach, had a better grasp of the fundamental principles of physics" (p. 12). Through carefully designed purposeful projects young children can begin to understand complex concepts and principles as well as gain experience in research methods.
Thinking routines often employed during critical inquiry projects also help student develop lifelong learning skills. By activating prior knowledge and acknowledging wonderings teachers are able to more effectively help students grow in understanding. "A critical feature of effective teaching is that it elicits from students their pre-existing understandings of the subject matter to be taught and provides opportunities to build-on challenge their initials wonderings" (Bransford et al., 2000, p.15). A key component of critical inquiry projects is the need to support a claim with evidence. Requiring students to provide evidence helps students come to understand where holes in their argument and understanding lie.
It is important to note that there is a difference between projects that are hands-on learning activities and critical inquiry projects: "There are important differences between tasks and projects that encourage hands-on doing and those that encourage doing with understanding, a knowledge-centred environment emphasizes the latter" (Bransford et al., 2000, p. 24). Purpose and a critical inquiry inquiry approach are essential components of projects if the goal is deep understanding and transfer.
The type of projects that are explored in the project section of the 6-Ps of empowered kindergarten classrooms are critical inquiry projects. These projects are based on the work done by Bailin and Battersby (2016). Critical inquiry projects have three main components: focus on an issue; careful examination of the issue from all sides; and, coming to a reasoned judgement. “The issue might involve some political controversy, an ethical decision, a scientific debate, or a decision or problem to be resolved” (Bailin & Battersby, 2016, p. 6). Some of the issues we have addressed in my own classroom include: the best pet for our classroom; whether we should wear our masks at school; what our school playground should include; and, how we can best help the homeless population of Lethbridge. In critical inquiry projects, students are exposed to making pro con lists, creating context maps to develop a deeper understanding of an issue, and to respectful debate in an attempt to come to a reasoned judgement in the end.
Passions
Bransford et al. (2000) speak about the concept of an accomplished novice and the role it plays in learning. They state, “a model that assumes that experts have all the answers is very different from the model of accomplished novice, who is proud of his or her achievements and yet also realizes there is more to learn" (p. 50). The ability to see the limits in one’s current understanding and knowledge and being able to then find ways to remedy the situation is key in the world of research. Thinking routines such as, “I used to think but now I think” (Ritchart & Church, 2020), are one way to develop this flexible thinking and deep understanding in students. In order to talk about what students used to think, they must be learning about an area where they already know some information but have a desire to learn more, an area they are passionate about.
The use of student passions and interests to teach curricular content and skills not only develops flexible thinking but also improve motivation. "Students are motivated to spend the time needed to learn complex subjects and to solve problems they find interesting. Opportunities to use knowledge to create products and benefits for others are particularly motivating for students" (Bransford et al., 2000, p. 77). Motivation affects the amount of time students are willing to spend learning about something and it also affects the way students approach challenges they face while learning. Resnick (2017) states, "The only way they can persist and persevere through all the challenges is if they work on topics that they're truly passionate about" (p. 72). When learning tasks become challenging, interests and passions motivate students to keep going, to keep trying, to persevere. Completing this project is a perfect example of this concept in action. There is no way I would be motivated to put in the time, effort, and persistence needed to complete a project at this level if it was not in an area that I felt passionate about.
The use of passions in the classroom also affects transfer of learning. "When people work on projects that they are interested in, it seems pretty obvious that they'll be more motivated and willing to work longer and harder. Their passion and motivation make them more likely to connect with new ideas and develop new ways of thinking" (Resnick, 2017, p. 68). This idea is supported in the work of Bransford et al. (2000). They speak about the way in which experts are able to make connections between different problems and events that novices do not, and the importance this skill plays in the speed and effectiveness of approaching related problems and situations. The use of passions in the classroom allows students the opportunity to build on knowledge that they already have and to deepen their understanding on a topic.
Two approaches to using passions in the classroom are explored on my Empowered Kindergarten Classroom Website. The first looks at how play-based learning can use student passions to teach students literacy and numeracy skills. The second approach looks at the use of passion projects. Passion projects are similar to critical inquiry projects in that they start off with an inquiry question. The difference is that they are not focused on an issue that students come to a reasoned judgement on. Rather passion projects are focused on asking a question and increasing one’s knowledge about a topic and sharing what was learned with others.
Inquiry-based learning is an essential component in the empowered early childhood classroom. Through inquiry-based learning students apply all the thinking routines and skills they have been practicing during classroom meeting times. Johnson et al (2019) state, “inquiry-based learning is established through student questioning and exploration of new knowledge for the purpose of integration with prior knowledge and skills” (p. 607). Calder (2015) builds on this description stating, “within inquiry learning an intention is for teachers to empower students to transition towards independently using their own strategies in authentic activity” (p. 1123). Authentic, real world problems or wonderings are the focus in an inquiry-based classroom.
What is inquiry-based learning, and what isn’t it? This is an important question to answer because there are many conflicting ideas about inquiry and often it is described as units in higher grades or themes in early childhood classrooms. Stacey (2019) defines inquiry as the act of “questioning, searching for information or finding out about a topic that we are interested in” (p. 1). In inquiry-based learning, topics of interest play a key role. Students are engaged, empowered, and motivated in their learning through the use of their own passions and personal wonderings. Alberta Learning (2004) describes inquiry learning as, “a process where students are involved in their learning, formulate questions, investigate widely, and then build new understandings, meaning and knowledge” (p. 1). A key attribute from this description that separates inquiry-based learning from the traditional use of themes in early childhood practice is that students identify questions to guide their learning. In traditional teaching methods, the teacher often starts the class with a question that the students will be trying to answer and an exit slip is provided for students to share their answer on the way out of class. Helm and Katz (2011) state, “in these methods (units and themes) the focus is not on helping children pose questions to be answered or take initiative for investigations” (p. 2). In the empowered classroom the teacher frames the area of inquiry and the students generate the questions they wish to answer.
Inquiry-based learning nurtures and develops children’s natural curiosity. This is a key attribute needed for creative and critically thinking (Daniels, 2017; Helm & Katz, 2011; Resnick, 2017). Curiosity is also a characteristic required to be a lifelong learner. Anderson, Comay and Chiarotto (2017) state, “inquiry stimulates and focuses students’ curiosity leading to progressively deep questions and a habit of critical thinking. Inquiry builds life-long learning , skills that go beyond content mastery” (p. 14). By putting students’ questions and wonderings at the center of our teaching and empowering them with the skills necessary to form their own investigations and find answers to their questions, we are able to foster those attitudes and turn them into habits of mind for future use.
Play
We know that young children come to school with many experiences and understandings of the world around them. We know that they are not blank slates on which a story begins to be written when they enter the classroom. Through play, students explore their understandings and test theories that they have. Carefully observing and planning play activities helps us better understand where students are in their understanding and what next steps need to be taken.Keung and Cheung (2019) state, “play-based learning has been identified as a developmentally appropriate practice incorporating, elements of child-centred learning, open-ended inquiry and hands on experiences” (p. 627). Play helps to level the field of experience and exposure as well. It provides opportunities for students to engage with the world and materials in ways that help make sense of the information teachers share in more formal ways.
Play provides a non-threatening way for students to share their understandings as well. Taylor and Marienau (2016) speak about how when presented with a threat such as a test the human brain goes into a primal state of fight or flight in which learning does not occur and the ability to show what is understood is hindered. They state, “People in a state of heightened anxiety, such as during tests or performance appraisals, are on brain overload” (p. 7). Play provides an opportunity for students to demonstrate their understandings in a minimal stressed environment.
Peers
Learning with peers is motivating and a good reflection of how learning occurs outside of a classroom setting. Bransford et al. (2000) state, "teachers must attend to designing classroom activities and helping students organize their work in ways that promote the kind of intellectual camaraderie and the attitudes toward learning that build a sense of community" (p. 25). This camaraderie mirrors what thinking looks like outside of the classroom and how we as humans naturally tackle problems as we encounter them. Resnick (2017) states, “most thinking is done in connection with other people: we share ideas, get reactions from other people, build upon one another’s ideas” (p. 91). Feeling like you are a part of something and belong is a basic human need. Providing learning opportunities for students to engage in learning from and with one another increases accountability for students and provides students with purpose.
Portfolios
When assessing students our methods frequently measure factual knowledge but fail to measure the depth of understanding that students have or the ability to transfer knowledge and understandings to new situations. Bransford et al. (2000) state "feedback that signals progress in memorizing facts and formulas is different from feedback that signals the state of students' understanding" (p. 59). Our traditional methods of assessing do not accurately demonstrate students’ learning and growth in the 21st century competencies as laid out by Alberta Education (2013). The use of digital portfolios as an assessment tool allows parents, students, and school staff to reflect on student thinking and skill development in the area of competencies beyond a final project or test: “Rather than trying to assess what children have learned by giving them an exam with right/wrong answers, we should work with children to document their projects, illustrating what they created, how they created it, and why” (Resnick, 2017, p. 152). The process of student learning can be documented and shared through the use of portfolios. The use of self-reflection tools, such as portfolios, better prepared students to transfer learning: "Through reflection, people make connections among ideas, develop a deeper understanding of which strategies are the most productive, and become better prepared to transfer what they've learned to new situations in the future" (Resnick, 2017, p. 71). Generative dialogue around the contents of a portfolio can lead to transfer of learning as well as students playing an active role in deciding next steps for their learning. Portfolios provide an opportunity for students to develop metacognitive skills: “Teaching practices congruent with a metacognitive approach to learning include those that focus on sense making, self-assessment, and reflection on what worked and what needs improving" (Bransford et al., 2000, p.12). Portfolios provide an opportunity for students to look at submissions and reflect on what improvements they see from previous artefacts. Portfolio use also provides opportunities for students to express why they want a specific learning artefact included and what that artefact demonstrates. This provides more ownership of learning and allows students to practice metacognitive skills and develop an internal locus of control.
21st Century Competencies
In 2013 the Minister of Education for Alberta, Jeff Johnson, signed a ministerial order that required a change of focus for Alberta schools. The document defined the goals of education as creating engaged thinkers and ethical citizens who possess an entrepreneurial spirit. It also identified eight competencies that should be integrated into curriculum and fostered throughout a student’s schooling experience. These competencies are creativity and innovation, critical thinking, communication, managing information, collaboration, personal health and wellbeing, cultural and global citizenship, and problem solving, (Alberta Education, 2013). At the time there was not a lot of direction on how to teach or assess students’ achievement of the competencies and there were few resources available for early childhood educators. At one point I was even told by an administrator to not worry about it, as competencies were something for older students. This of course is not the case. Children in the early years of education can handle and should be given the opportunity to grow in all of the competencies. This is where the 6-Ps of empowerment come into play.
Play-based Learning and the Competencies
Play is a natural way for students to express creativity and demonstrate their innovative thinking practices. Feesha and Pyle (2016) state, “play-based approaches improve creativity and adaptability that leads to the type of innovative thinking needed in professions such as engineering, architecture, and mathematics” (p. 364). Play by its very nature calls for free thinking and creativity. When students engage in building activities at the block center they are involved in innovative and creativity thinking. Activities such as building ski ramps and testing to see whose penguin can go the farthest or building a bridge that crosses the block area and can hold a toy billy goat provide students fun and low stress ways to make predictions, test their predictions, revise their thinking, and try again. At the art center students exercise creativity and innovation by turning a pile of random supplies into a mask or a puppet for a retelling of Goldilocks and the Three Bears. At the loose parts center students use their innovative and creative thinking skills to create pictures out of random supplies such as buttons, screws, and bottle caps.
Play is a great way to develop critical thinking in students as well. Burke (2019) states, "Play is an inquiry process that consists of four ways of knowing: Exploration, testing, imitation, and construction" (p. 17). Students often engage in sorting activities during play. This is an ideal time to develop critical thinking, especially the ability to support a claim. A few days ago students in my class were busy sorting animals at the small world center based on their habitat. Students were arguing over where some animals should go (whales and seals are particularly great for causing disagreements). Students had to defend why they thought the animal belonged in a certain habitat and why it didn’t belong in another one. In the end the students were able to come to a reasoned judgement and agreed that the whales should go in the ocean habitat not the arctic habitat.
Communication skills progress naturally through play as students interact with one another. Language around specific topics grows, and vocabulary is built within a context which leads to a better understanding of the words and transfer to novel situations: "Building a classroom environment where children can seek out different challenges and risks to become better communicators will help children develop skills essential for literacy" (Burke, 2019, p. 27). Play-based environments offer students a chance to take risks with language in a low-stakes setting.
Play also provides opportunities for students to engage in personal health and wellbeing activities. Play provides opportunities for students to engage in physical activity throughout the day and limits the amount of time students are confined to a chair or desk. It provides opportunities for students to connect with peers and develop positive social interaction skills. Play also provides opportunities for students to explore big issues or concerns that they have in nonthreatening ways. This past year my students struggled to understand COVID-19 and its impact on the world. In response to this my kindergarten students created a tag game outside. The premise of the game was that once you were tagged you became it and were always it. The game was over when everyone was it and the students called their game, “Corona tag.” During the Black Plague children played ring around the rosy. Both of these games helped children process what was happening in the world around them.
Projects and the Competencies
Critical inquiry projects and passion projects provide opportunities for students to develop skills in all of the 21st century competencies. Stacey (2019) states, “just about any skill can arise and be developed within inquiry. There is opportunity for problem solving, collaboration, literacy, math, science, artistic expression, and so on, all at the child’s own level” (p. 8).
The use of critical inquiry projects provides students with experiences in critical and creative thinking. Resnick (2017) states, “if we want children to grow up as creative thinkers, we need to provide them with more opportunities to create their own projects and express their own ideas” (p. 44). Through the use of thinking routines and critical inquiry projects students are given the opportunity to see the world around them in a new way. Students learn to notice and question what they see and hear. Calder (2015) states, “by using questions to trigger thinking, ignite inquiry, and establish dialogic relationships teachers can facilitate student’s development of a range of thinking skills and enable them to become more independent learners” (p. 1123). Through noticing the world around them and asking questions, students are provided the opportunity to engage in creative problem-solving activities that have purpose and meaning.
Critical inquiry projects also provide students with the opportunity to develop a deeper understanding of what a democratic society is about. These projects provide an opportunity for students to engage in conversations and to experience strong feelings that arise when people have different points of view. Anderson, Comay, and Chiarotto state, “to sustain democratic and egalitarian discussions, especially among children just learning how to engage in this kind of talk, there is value in a format that reinforces their ongoing awareness of one another” (p. 14). To be active citizens who understand democratic society students need to be able to engage with and understand others who have opposing views and opinions, and to respect pluralism.
This type of project helps students develop flexible thinking as well as the ability to see problems and situations from a variety of viewpoints. Goodvid et al. (2019) state, “when kids think critically, they are analytical and reflective, and they entertain a variety of different perspectives” (p. 22). This skill is very important in the information age that we live in. It is very easy to find people who believe and agree with your ideas. Being able to listen to a variety of viewpoints and finding a variety of sources is essential to developing an understanding of the world in which we live. Students learn how to manage new information and to evaluate that information in relation to current beliefs and understandings. They learn to evaluate the validity and merit of different sources of information.
Kindergarten students are not too young to begin developing global understandings. Johnson et al. (2019) states, “developing a global mindset can begin in the early grades when young scholars are most curious and open to the world around them” (p. 608). Real world issues can be presented to students in kindergarten. The issues need to be presented at the students’ level and in developmentally appropriate ways. One of the most successful inquiry projects I competed with my students was focused on the homeless population in our community. This project was a result of students seeing people digging in the school dumpsters and asking questions about what they saw. Through the use of a critical inquiry project focused on how we can help the homeless population of Lethbridge students were able to develop and demonstrate a compassion for others in the community. They also demonstrated an understanding of what it means to be homeless in Canada as well as some reasons why there is homelessness in Canada and other countries around the world.
Critical inquiry projects and passion projects by nature help students build problem solving skills in a very natural and purposeful environment: "As students work together on projects, they learn not only webs of concepts, but also sets of strategies - strategies for making things, for solving problems, for communicating ideas" (Resnick, 2017, p. 54). Whether students are designing the world’s greatest playground, exploring how dinosaurs became extinct, or finding a way to help the hungry in the community, they are engaged in purposeful problem solving.
Projects also provide students with the opportunity to develop their collaboration and communication skills. Anderson et al. (2019) state, “working with others to build understanding, they learn the need to articulate ideas clearly, pose a focused question to clarify a point of view, and respect the diverse contributions of individuals within a collaborative community” (p. 14). Often critical inquiry projects do not start or end with a consensus on the answer to the inquiry question. Students learn to accept differing viewpoints and to question why people hold those views without judging the person. Bailin and Battersby (2016) speak of the importance of the spirit of inquiry. A spirit of inquiry requires “open-mindedness which involves being open to challenges to our arguments, counter evidence, and views which oppose our own” (p. 265). Through critical inquiry projects students learn how to respectfully explain their stance on an issue and respectfully question others.
Motivation and Creating Lifelong Learners Through the 6-Ps
The 6-Ps of the empowered kindergarten classroom also have foundations in motivational theories. Resnick (2017) states, "If your goal is to help people develop as creative thinkers and lifelong learners, then different strategies are needed. Rather than offering extrinsic rewards it's better to draw upon people's intrinsic motivation" (p. 75). When students are intrinsically motivated to learn they often outperform students who are encouraged to learn through the use of rewards and punishments. Montessori (1967) stated, "Rewards and punishments are the desk of the soul, that is, a means of enslaving a child's spirit, and better suited to provoke than to prevent deformities" (p.13). Shalaby (2017) paints a picture of how the rewards and punishments often used in early childhood classrooms don’t improve student motivation or achievement; rather they serve to further exclude and demotivate students.
Play is a low stress, high interest method of providing instruction: “When children are playing, they are intrinsically motivated, pleasurably involved and actively engaged; and these elements provide desirable optimal conditions for learning" (Pui-Wah & Stimpson, 2004, p. 340). Introducing new concepts and skills in a playful, natural way throughout that day as need arises taps into students intrinsic motivation to learn and is thus more effective. Projects are also highly motivating learning activities, especially when student interests, passions, and a real purpose is used as the basis for the activity: “Honouring interests and questions related to a common focus or big idea leads to higher levels of engagement, improved understanding, and a love of learning” (Anderson et al., 2017, p. 14).
When concepts and skills are taught purposefully using active learning methods with just in time instruction, students demonstrate higher achievement levels. Since changing my programming to include the 6-Ps of empowerment I have noticed improvement in student scores on the EYE-TA spring assessment tool. I have also noticed an improvement in students’ ability to apply their understanding of letters and sounds to the reading and writing process.
Closely related to motivation, engagement and achievement, the 6-Ps of the empowered early childhood classroom have a positive effect on students’ ability to self-regulate. The 6-Ps help to develop executive functioning skills and important social skills required in school as well as life outside of school. Weisberg et al. (2013) state, "there is some evidence that children in programs using a playful pedagogical approach show better executive functioning skills, such as inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility" (p. 106). Through the use of play, projects, and peers, students learn self-regulation and social skills out of a purposeful need: "Games and other forms of collaborative play are crucial for self-regulation: important concepts such as sharing, waiting one's turn. following directions, not being too rough, and controlling frustration" (Burke, 2019, p. 27). Through natural consequences and low stress mistakes, students learn valuable lessons on how not only to survive in a group setting, but learn to flourish.
Using the 6-Ps of the empowered early childhood classroom has lasting effects on students throughout their school years. Weisberg et al. (2013) contend, “Children participating in curricula that are based on principles of direct instruction show more inattention and stress behaviours, less self-confidence in their own abilities, and less end of the year progress in motor, language, and social skills when compared with peers in playful learning classrooms (p. 108). Students’ academic, social, and personal skills are positively affected by experiencing the 6-Ps of the empowered early childhood classroom.
Purpose
Using topics and activities that have a purpose beyond simply learning facts is supported by learning theory. Bransford et al. (2000) point out that “often there is only superficial coverage of facts before moving on to the next topic; there is little time to develop important organizing ideas" (National Research Council, 2000, p. 42). “Memorizing facts and formulas does not provide context or reasons for learning. When students solve a set of disconnected problems, they often end up with disconnected knowledge, without an understanding of why they were learning it or how to apply it to new situations (Resnick, 2017, p. 53). Bransford et al. (2000) found that students often struggled to know which formula to use in different situations. They also found that transfer of knowledge to new situations was negatively affected by the use of memorization. They state, “transfer is affected by the degree to which people learn with understanding, rather than merely memorizing sets of facts or following a fixed set of procedures" (p. 55). Learning that is tied to a purpose, to a reason is conditionalized which prevents it from becoming inert.
ProjectsStudents in primary grades need to be exposed to critical inquiry practices in order to develop the skill sets required in many fields of research Bransfird et al. (2000) state, "although students scored very well on facts about history, they were largely unacquainted with models of inquiry, with real historical thinking. They had no way of making sense of the contradictory claims” (p. 42). Through the use of critical inquiry projects, students gain exoerience in skills such as historical thinking and develop a stronger understanding of foundational principles. Bransford et al. (2000) also found that "younger students, taught by the inquiry-based approach, had a better grasp of the fundamental principles of physics" (p. 12). Through carefully designed purposeful projects young children can begin to understand complex concepts and principles as well as gain experience in research methods.
Thinking routines often employed during critical inquiry projects also help student develop lifelong learning skills. By activating prior knowledge and acknowledging wonderings teachers are able to more effectively help students grow in understanding. "A critical feature of effective teaching is that it elicits from students their pre-existing understandings of the subject matter to be taught and provides opportunities to build-on challenge their initials wonderings" (Bransford et al., 2000, p.15). A key component of critical inquiry projects is the need to support a claim with evidence. Requiring students to provide evidence helps students come to understand where holes in their argument and understanding lie.
It is important to note that there is a difference between projects that are hands-on learning activities and critical inquiry projects: "There are important differences between tasks and projects that encourage hands-on doing and those that encourage doing with understanding, a knowledge-centred environment emphasizes the latter" (Bransford et al., 2000, p. 24). Purpose and a critical inquiry inquiry approach are essential components of projects if the goal is deep understanding and transfer.
The type of projects that are explored in the project section of the 6-Ps of empowered kindergarten classrooms are critical inquiry projects. These projects are based on the work done by Bailin and Battersby (2016). Critical inquiry projects have three main components: focus on an issue; careful examination of the issue from all sides; and, coming to a reasoned judgement. “The issue might involve some political controversy, an ethical decision, a scientific debate, or a decision or problem to be resolved” (Bailin & Battersby, 2016, p. 6). Some of the issues we have addressed in my own classroom include: the best pet for our classroom; whether we should wear our masks at school; what our school playground should include; and, how we can best help the homeless population of Lethbridge. In critical inquiry projects, students are exposed to making pro con lists, creating context maps to develop a deeper understanding of an issue, and to respectful debate in an attempt to come to a reasoned judgement in the end.
Passions
Bransford et al. (2000) speak about the concept of an accomplished novice and the role it plays in learning. They state, “a model that assumes that experts have all the answers is very different from the model of accomplished novice, who is proud of his or her achievements and yet also realizes there is more to learn" (p. 50). The ability to see the limits in one’s current understanding and knowledge and being able to then find ways to remedy the situation is key in the world of research. Thinking routines such as, “I used to think but now I think” (Ritchart & Church, 2020), are one way to develop this flexible thinking and deep understanding in students. In order to talk about what students used to think, they must be learning about an area where they already know some information but have a desire to learn more, an area they are passionate about.
The use of student passions and interests to teach curricular content and skills not only develops flexible thinking but also improve motivation. "Students are motivated to spend the time needed to learn complex subjects and to solve problems they find interesting. Opportunities to use knowledge to create products and benefits for others are particularly motivating for students" (Bransford et al., 2000, p. 77). Motivation affects the amount of time students are willing to spend learning about something and it also affects the way students approach challenges they face while learning. Resnick (2017) states, "The only way they can persist and persevere through all the challenges is if they work on topics that they're truly passionate about" (p. 72). When learning tasks become challenging, interests and passions motivate students to keep going, to keep trying, to persevere. Completing this project is a perfect example of this concept in action. There is no way I would be motivated to put in the time, effort, and persistence needed to complete a project at this level if it was not in an area that I felt passionate about.
The use of passions in the classroom also affects transfer of learning. "When people work on projects that they are interested in, it seems pretty obvious that they'll be more motivated and willing to work longer and harder. Their passion and motivation make them more likely to connect with new ideas and develop new ways of thinking" (Resnick, 2017, p. 68). This idea is supported in the work of Bransford et al. (2000). They speak about the way in which experts are able to make connections between different problems and events that novices do not, and the importance this skill plays in the speed and effectiveness of approaching related problems and situations. The use of passions in the classroom allows students the opportunity to build on knowledge that they already have and to deepen their understanding on a topic.
Two approaches to using passions in the classroom are explored on my Empowered Kindergarten Classroom Website. The first looks at how play-based learning can use student passions to teach students literacy and numeracy skills. The second approach looks at the use of passion projects. Passion projects are similar to critical inquiry projects in that they start off with an inquiry question. The difference is that they are not focused on an issue that students come to a reasoned judgement on. Rather passion projects are focused on asking a question and increasing one’s knowledge about a topic and sharing what was learned with others.
Inquiry-based learning is an essential component in the empowered early childhood classroom. Through inquiry-based learning students apply all the thinking routines and skills they have been practicing during classroom meeting times. Johnson et al (2019) state, “inquiry-based learning is established through student questioning and exploration of new knowledge for the purpose of integration with prior knowledge and skills” (p. 607). Calder (2015) builds on this description stating, “within inquiry learning an intention is for teachers to empower students to transition towards independently using their own strategies in authentic activity” (p. 1123). Authentic, real world problems or wonderings are the focus in an inquiry-based classroom.
What is inquiry-based learning, and what isn’t it? This is an important question to answer because there are many conflicting ideas about inquiry and often it is described as units in higher grades or themes in early childhood classrooms. Stacey (2019) defines inquiry as the act of “questioning, searching for information or finding out about a topic that we are interested in” (p. 1). In inquiry-based learning, topics of interest play a key role. Students are engaged, empowered, and motivated in their learning through the use of their own passions and personal wonderings. Alberta Learning (2004) describes inquiry learning as, “a process where students are involved in their learning, formulate questions, investigate widely, and then build new understandings, meaning and knowledge” (p. 1). A key attribute from this description that separates inquiry-based learning from the traditional use of themes in early childhood practice is that students identify questions to guide their learning. In traditional teaching methods, the teacher often starts the class with a question that the students will be trying to answer and an exit slip is provided for students to share their answer on the way out of class. Helm and Katz (2011) state, “in these methods (units and themes) the focus is not on helping children pose questions to be answered or take initiative for investigations” (p. 2). In the empowered classroom the teacher frames the area of inquiry and the students generate the questions they wish to answer.
Inquiry-based learning nurtures and develops children’s natural curiosity. This is a key attribute needed for creative and critically thinking (Daniels, 2017; Helm & Katz, 2011; Resnick, 2017). Curiosity is also a characteristic required to be a lifelong learner. Anderson, Comay and Chiarotto (2017) state, “inquiry stimulates and focuses students’ curiosity leading to progressively deep questions and a habit of critical thinking. Inquiry builds life-long learning , skills that go beyond content mastery” (p. 14). By putting students’ questions and wonderings at the center of our teaching and empowering them with the skills necessary to form their own investigations and find answers to their questions, we are able to foster those attitudes and turn them into habits of mind for future use.
Play
We know that young children come to school with many experiences and understandings of the world around them. We know that they are not blank slates on which a story begins to be written when they enter the classroom. Through play, students explore their understandings and test theories that they have. Carefully observing and planning play activities helps us better understand where students are in their understanding and what next steps need to be taken.Keung and Cheung (2019) state, “play-based learning has been identified as a developmentally appropriate practice incorporating, elements of child-centred learning, open-ended inquiry and hands on experiences” (p. 627). Play helps to level the field of experience and exposure as well. It provides opportunities for students to engage with the world and materials in ways that help make sense of the information teachers share in more formal ways.
Play provides a non-threatening way for students to share their understandings as well. Taylor and Marienau (2016) speak about how when presented with a threat such as a test the human brain goes into a primal state of fight or flight in which learning does not occur and the ability to show what is understood is hindered. They state, “People in a state of heightened anxiety, such as during tests or performance appraisals, are on brain overload” (p. 7). Play provides an opportunity for students to demonstrate their understandings in a minimal stressed environment.
Peers
Learning with peers is motivating and a good reflection of how learning occurs outside of a classroom setting. Bransford et al. (2000) state, "teachers must attend to designing classroom activities and helping students organize their work in ways that promote the kind of intellectual camaraderie and the attitudes toward learning that build a sense of community" (p. 25). This camaraderie mirrors what thinking looks like outside of the classroom and how we as humans naturally tackle problems as we encounter them. Resnick (2017) states, “most thinking is done in connection with other people: we share ideas, get reactions from other people, build upon one another’s ideas” (p. 91). Feeling like you are a part of something and belong is a basic human need. Providing learning opportunities for students to engage in learning from and with one another increases accountability for students and provides students with purpose.
Portfolios
When assessing students our methods frequently measure factual knowledge but fail to measure the depth of understanding that students have or the ability to transfer knowledge and understandings to new situations. Bransford et al. (2000) state "feedback that signals progress in memorizing facts and formulas is different from feedback that signals the state of students' understanding" (p. 59). Our traditional methods of assessing do not accurately demonstrate students’ learning and growth in the 21st century competencies as laid out by Alberta Education (2013). The use of digital portfolios as an assessment tool allows parents, students, and school staff to reflect on student thinking and skill development in the area of competencies beyond a final project or test: “Rather than trying to assess what children have learned by giving them an exam with right/wrong answers, we should work with children to document their projects, illustrating what they created, how they created it, and why” (Resnick, 2017, p. 152). The process of student learning can be documented and shared through the use of portfolios. The use of self-reflection tools, such as portfolios, better prepared students to transfer learning: "Through reflection, people make connections among ideas, develop a deeper understanding of which strategies are the most productive, and become better prepared to transfer what they've learned to new situations in the future" (Resnick, 2017, p. 71). Generative dialogue around the contents of a portfolio can lead to transfer of learning as well as students playing an active role in deciding next steps for their learning. Portfolios provide an opportunity for students to develop metacognitive skills: “Teaching practices congruent with a metacognitive approach to learning include those that focus on sense making, self-assessment, and reflection on what worked and what needs improving" (Bransford et al., 2000, p.12). Portfolios provide an opportunity for students to look at submissions and reflect on what improvements they see from previous artefacts. Portfolio use also provides opportunities for students to express why they want a specific learning artefact included and what that artefact demonstrates. This provides more ownership of learning and allows students to practice metacognitive skills and develop an internal locus of control.
21st Century Competencies
In 2013 the Minister of Education for Alberta, Jeff Johnson, signed a ministerial order that required a change of focus for Alberta schools. The document defined the goals of education as creating engaged thinkers and ethical citizens who possess an entrepreneurial spirit. It also identified eight competencies that should be integrated into curriculum and fostered throughout a student’s schooling experience. These competencies are creativity and innovation, critical thinking, communication, managing information, collaboration, personal health and wellbeing, cultural and global citizenship, and problem solving, (Alberta Education, 2013). At the time there was not a lot of direction on how to teach or assess students’ achievement of the competencies and there were few resources available for early childhood educators. At one point I was even told by an administrator to not worry about it, as competencies were something for older students. This of course is not the case. Children in the early years of education can handle and should be given the opportunity to grow in all of the competencies. This is where the 6-Ps of empowerment come into play.
Play-based Learning and the Competencies
Play is a natural way for students to express creativity and demonstrate their innovative thinking practices. Feesha and Pyle (2016) state, “play-based approaches improve creativity and adaptability that leads to the type of innovative thinking needed in professions such as engineering, architecture, and mathematics” (p. 364). Play by its very nature calls for free thinking and creativity. When students engage in building activities at the block center they are involved in innovative and creativity thinking. Activities such as building ski ramps and testing to see whose penguin can go the farthest or building a bridge that crosses the block area and can hold a toy billy goat provide students fun and low stress ways to make predictions, test their predictions, revise their thinking, and try again. At the art center students exercise creativity and innovation by turning a pile of random supplies into a mask or a puppet for a retelling of Goldilocks and the Three Bears. At the loose parts center students use their innovative and creative thinking skills to create pictures out of random supplies such as buttons, screws, and bottle caps.
Play is a great way to develop critical thinking in students as well. Burke (2019) states, "Play is an inquiry process that consists of four ways of knowing: Exploration, testing, imitation, and construction" (p. 17). Students often engage in sorting activities during play. This is an ideal time to develop critical thinking, especially the ability to support a claim. A few days ago students in my class were busy sorting animals at the small world center based on their habitat. Students were arguing over where some animals should go (whales and seals are particularly great for causing disagreements). Students had to defend why they thought the animal belonged in a certain habitat and why it didn’t belong in another one. In the end the students were able to come to a reasoned judgement and agreed that the whales should go in the ocean habitat not the arctic habitat.
Communication skills progress naturally through play as students interact with one another. Language around specific topics grows, and vocabulary is built within a context which leads to a better understanding of the words and transfer to novel situations: "Building a classroom environment where children can seek out different challenges and risks to become better communicators will help children develop skills essential for literacy" (Burke, 2019, p. 27). Play-based environments offer students a chance to take risks with language in a low-stakes setting.
Play also provides opportunities for students to engage in personal health and wellbeing activities. Play provides opportunities for students to engage in physical activity throughout the day and limits the amount of time students are confined to a chair or desk. It provides opportunities for students to connect with peers and develop positive social interaction skills. Play also provides opportunities for students to explore big issues or concerns that they have in nonthreatening ways. This past year my students struggled to understand COVID-19 and its impact on the world. In response to this my kindergarten students created a tag game outside. The premise of the game was that once you were tagged you became it and were always it. The game was over when everyone was it and the students called their game, “Corona tag.” During the Black Plague children played ring around the rosy. Both of these games helped children process what was happening in the world around them.
Projects and the Competencies
Critical inquiry projects and passion projects provide opportunities for students to develop skills in all of the 21st century competencies. Stacey (2019) states, “just about any skill can arise and be developed within inquiry. There is opportunity for problem solving, collaboration, literacy, math, science, artistic expression, and so on, all at the child’s own level” (p. 8).
The use of critical inquiry projects provides students with experiences in critical and creative thinking. Resnick (2017) states, “if we want children to grow up as creative thinkers, we need to provide them with more opportunities to create their own projects and express their own ideas” (p. 44). Through the use of thinking routines and critical inquiry projects students are given the opportunity to see the world around them in a new way. Students learn to notice and question what they see and hear. Calder (2015) states, “by using questions to trigger thinking, ignite inquiry, and establish dialogic relationships teachers can facilitate student’s development of a range of thinking skills and enable them to become more independent learners” (p. 1123). Through noticing the world around them and asking questions, students are provided the opportunity to engage in creative problem-solving activities that have purpose and meaning.
Critical inquiry projects also provide students with the opportunity to develop a deeper understanding of what a democratic society is about. These projects provide an opportunity for students to engage in conversations and to experience strong feelings that arise when people have different points of view. Anderson, Comay, and Chiarotto state, “to sustain democratic and egalitarian discussions, especially among children just learning how to engage in this kind of talk, there is value in a format that reinforces their ongoing awareness of one another” (p. 14). To be active citizens who understand democratic society students need to be able to engage with and understand others who have opposing views and opinions, and to respect pluralism.
This type of project helps students develop flexible thinking as well as the ability to see problems and situations from a variety of viewpoints. Goodvid et al. (2019) state, “when kids think critically, they are analytical and reflective, and they entertain a variety of different perspectives” (p. 22). This skill is very important in the information age that we live in. It is very easy to find people who believe and agree with your ideas. Being able to listen to a variety of viewpoints and finding a variety of sources is essential to developing an understanding of the world in which we live. Students learn how to manage new information and to evaluate that information in relation to current beliefs and understandings. They learn to evaluate the validity and merit of different sources of information.
Kindergarten students are not too young to begin developing global understandings. Johnson et al. (2019) states, “developing a global mindset can begin in the early grades when young scholars are most curious and open to the world around them” (p. 608). Real world issues can be presented to students in kindergarten. The issues need to be presented at the students’ level and in developmentally appropriate ways. One of the most successful inquiry projects I competed with my students was focused on the homeless population in our community. This project was a result of students seeing people digging in the school dumpsters and asking questions about what they saw. Through the use of a critical inquiry project focused on how we can help the homeless population of Lethbridge students were able to develop and demonstrate a compassion for others in the community. They also demonstrated an understanding of what it means to be homeless in Canada as well as some reasons why there is homelessness in Canada and other countries around the world.
Critical inquiry projects and passion projects by nature help students build problem solving skills in a very natural and purposeful environment: "As students work together on projects, they learn not only webs of concepts, but also sets of strategies - strategies for making things, for solving problems, for communicating ideas" (Resnick, 2017, p. 54). Whether students are designing the world’s greatest playground, exploring how dinosaurs became extinct, or finding a way to help the hungry in the community, they are engaged in purposeful problem solving.
Projects also provide students with the opportunity to develop their collaboration and communication skills. Anderson et al. (2019) state, “working with others to build understanding, they learn the need to articulate ideas clearly, pose a focused question to clarify a point of view, and respect the diverse contributions of individuals within a collaborative community” (p. 14). Often critical inquiry projects do not start or end with a consensus on the answer to the inquiry question. Students learn to accept differing viewpoints and to question why people hold those views without judging the person. Bailin and Battersby (2016) speak of the importance of the spirit of inquiry. A spirit of inquiry requires “open-mindedness which involves being open to challenges to our arguments, counter evidence, and views which oppose our own” (p. 265). Through critical inquiry projects students learn how to respectfully explain their stance on an issue and respectfully question others.
Motivation and Creating Lifelong Learners Through the 6-Ps
The 6-Ps of the empowered kindergarten classroom also have foundations in motivational theories. Resnick (2017) states, "If your goal is to help people develop as creative thinkers and lifelong learners, then different strategies are needed. Rather than offering extrinsic rewards it's better to draw upon people's intrinsic motivation" (p. 75). When students are intrinsically motivated to learn they often outperform students who are encouraged to learn through the use of rewards and punishments. Montessori (1967) stated, "Rewards and punishments are the desk of the soul, that is, a means of enslaving a child's spirit, and better suited to provoke than to prevent deformities" (p.13). Shalaby (2017) paints a picture of how the rewards and punishments often used in early childhood classrooms don’t improve student motivation or achievement; rather they serve to further exclude and demotivate students.
Play is a low stress, high interest method of providing instruction: “When children are playing, they are intrinsically motivated, pleasurably involved and actively engaged; and these elements provide desirable optimal conditions for learning" (Pui-Wah & Stimpson, 2004, p. 340). Introducing new concepts and skills in a playful, natural way throughout that day as need arises taps into students intrinsic motivation to learn and is thus more effective. Projects are also highly motivating learning activities, especially when student interests, passions, and a real purpose is used as the basis for the activity: “Honouring interests and questions related to a common focus or big idea leads to higher levels of engagement, improved understanding, and a love of learning” (Anderson et al., 2017, p. 14).
When concepts and skills are taught purposefully using active learning methods with just in time instruction, students demonstrate higher achievement levels. Since changing my programming to include the 6-Ps of empowerment I have noticed improvement in student scores on the EYE-TA spring assessment tool. I have also noticed an improvement in students’ ability to apply their understanding of letters and sounds to the reading and writing process.
Closely related to motivation, engagement and achievement, the 6-Ps of the empowered early childhood classroom have a positive effect on students’ ability to self-regulate. The 6-Ps help to develop executive functioning skills and important social skills required in school as well as life outside of school. Weisberg et al. (2013) state, "there is some evidence that children in programs using a playful pedagogical approach show better executive functioning skills, such as inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility" (p. 106). Through the use of play, projects, and peers, students learn self-regulation and social skills out of a purposeful need: "Games and other forms of collaborative play are crucial for self-regulation: important concepts such as sharing, waiting one's turn. following directions, not being too rough, and controlling frustration" (Burke, 2019, p. 27). Through natural consequences and low stress mistakes, students learn valuable lessons on how not only to survive in a group setting, but learn to flourish.
Using the 6-Ps of the empowered early childhood classroom has lasting effects on students throughout their school years. Weisberg et al. (2013) contend, “Children participating in curricula that are based on principles of direct instruction show more inattention and stress behaviours, less self-confidence in their own abilities, and less end of the year progress in motor, language, and social skills when compared with peers in playful learning classrooms (p. 108). Students’ academic, social, and personal skills are positively affected by experiencing the 6-Ps of the empowered early childhood classroom.
Have you ever had that moment when you looked at your class and discovered not one of your students is listening or truly engaged in what you are doing. Okay maybe not no one, there is always that one kid that no matter what you do they are on board with you? This happened to me a few years ago. I was in the middle of our morning calendar routines, there was one student on the thinking chair for pulling. girl's hair, three were sitting on specialized chairs to help them focus and five had fidget toys. Even with all sorts of modifications, adaptations, and what I thought were fun and engaging activities it was clear the students were bored, and if I am being completely honest, so was I. Later in the day when I was assessing students on the days of the week, guess what, not one knew they days of the week unless I started singing the song. It was then that I realized the students had memorized the songs, they memorized the routines but they had no understanding of the concepts nor were they able to transfer those routines to other learning situations. I had a problem, a big problem. I was teaching but the students weren't learning.
Motivation and Creating Lifelong Learners Through the 6 Ps
The 6 P’s of the empowered kindergarten classroom also have foundations in motivational theories. They help students develop growth mindsets and develop an internal locus of control. All of which we know are important attributes needed to become a lifelong learner. Resnick (2017) states, "If your goal is to help people develop as creative thinkers and lifelong learners, then different strategies are needed. Rather than offering extrinsic rewards it's better to draw upon people's intrinsic motivation - that is, their desire to work on problems and projects that they find interesting and satisfying"(p. 75). When students are intrinsically motivated to learn they often outperform students who are encouraged to learn through the use of rewards and punishments. Montessori (1967) states, "Rewards and punishments are the desk of the soul, that is, a means of enslaving a child's spirit, and better suited to provoke than to prevent deformities" (p.13). Shallaby (2017) paints a picture of how the rewards and punishments often used in early childhood classrooms don’t improve student motivation or achievement rather they serve to further exclude and demotivate students.
Play is a low stress, high interest method of providing instruction. “When children are playing, they are intrinsically motivated, pleasurably involved and actively engaged; and these elements provide desirable optimal conditions for learning" (Pui-Wah and Stimpson, 2004, p. 340). Introducing new concepts and skills in a playful, natural way throughout that day as need arises taps into students intrinsic motivation to learn and is thus more effective.
Projects are also highly motivating learning activities. Especially when student interests, passions, and a real purpose is used as the basis for the activity. “Honouring interests and questions related to a common focus or big idea leads to higher levels of engagement, improved understanding, and a love of learning” (Anderson, Comay, and Chiarotto, 2017, p. 14) When concepts and skills are taught purposefully using active learning methods with just in time instruction, students demonstrate higher achievement levels.
Closely related to motivation and engagement the 6 P’s of the empowered early childhood classroom have a positive affect on students’ ability to self-regulate. The 6 P’s help to develop executive functioning skills and important social skills required in school as well as life outside of school. Weisberg, Hirsch-Pasek, and Golinkoff (2013) state, "there is some evidence that children in programs using a playful pedagogical approach show better executive functioning skills, such as inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility" (p.106). Through the use of play, projects, and peers students learn self-regulation and social skills out of a purposeful need. "Games and other forms of collaborative play are crucial for self - regulation: important concepts such as sharing, waiting one's turn. following directions, not being too rough, and controlling frustration" (Burke, 2019, p. 27). Through natural consequences and low stress mistakes students learn valuable lessons on how not only to survive in a group a setting but flourish.
Using the 6 P’s of the empowered early childhood classroom has lasting effects on students throughout their school years. "Children participating in curricula that are based on principles of direct instruction show more inattention and stress behaviours, less self-confidence in their own abilities, and less end of the year progress in motor, language, and social skills when compared with peers in playful learning classrooms (108). Students’ academic, social, and personal skills are positively affected by experiencing the 6 P’s of the empowered early childhood classroom.
The 6 P’s of the empowered kindergarten classroom also have foundations in motivational theories. They help students develop growth mindsets and develop an internal locus of control. All of which we know are important attributes needed to become a lifelong learner. Resnick (2017) states, "If your goal is to help people develop as creative thinkers and lifelong learners, then different strategies are needed. Rather than offering extrinsic rewards it's better to draw upon people's intrinsic motivation - that is, their desire to work on problems and projects that they find interesting and satisfying"(p. 75). When students are intrinsically motivated to learn they often outperform students who are encouraged to learn through the use of rewards and punishments. Montessori (1967) states, "Rewards and punishments are the desk of the soul, that is, a means of enslaving a child's spirit, and better suited to provoke than to prevent deformities" (p.13). Shallaby (2017) paints a picture of how the rewards and punishments often used in early childhood classrooms don’t improve student motivation or achievement rather they serve to further exclude and demotivate students.
Play is a low stress, high interest method of providing instruction. “When children are playing, they are intrinsically motivated, pleasurably involved and actively engaged; and these elements provide desirable optimal conditions for learning" (Pui-Wah and Stimpson, 2004, p. 340). Introducing new concepts and skills in a playful, natural way throughout that day as need arises taps into students intrinsic motivation to learn and is thus more effective.
Projects are also highly motivating learning activities. Especially when student interests, passions, and a real purpose is used as the basis for the activity. “Honouring interests and questions related to a common focus or big idea leads to higher levels of engagement, improved understanding, and a love of learning” (Anderson, Comay, and Chiarotto, 2017, p. 14) When concepts and skills are taught purposefully using active learning methods with just in time instruction, students demonstrate higher achievement levels.
Closely related to motivation and engagement the 6 P’s of the empowered early childhood classroom have a positive affect on students’ ability to self-regulate. The 6 P’s help to develop executive functioning skills and important social skills required in school as well as life outside of school. Weisberg, Hirsch-Pasek, and Golinkoff (2013) state, "there is some evidence that children in programs using a playful pedagogical approach show better executive functioning skills, such as inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility" (p.106). Through the use of play, projects, and peers students learn self-regulation and social skills out of a purposeful need. "Games and other forms of collaborative play are crucial for self - regulation: important concepts such as sharing, waiting one's turn. following directions, not being too rough, and controlling frustration" (Burke, 2019, p. 27). Through natural consequences and low stress mistakes students learn valuable lessons on how not only to survive in a group a setting but flourish.
Using the 6 P’s of the empowered early childhood classroom has lasting effects on students throughout their school years. "Children participating in curricula that are based on principles of direct instruction show more inattention and stress behaviours, less self-confidence in their own abilities, and less end of the year progress in motor, language, and social skills when compared with peers in playful learning classrooms (108). Students’ academic, social, and personal skills are positively affected by experiencing the 6 P’s of the empowered early childhood classroom.
Learning Theory and the 6Ps
Purpose
Using topics and activities that have a purpose beyond simply learning facts is supported by learning theory. Bransford, Brown and Cocking (2000) point out that “often there is only superficial coverage of facts before moving on to the next topic; there is little time to develop important organizing ideas" (National Research Council, 2000, p. 42). Memorizing facts and formulas does not provide context or reasons for learning. When students solve a set of disconnected problems, they often end up with disconnected knowledge, without an understanding of why they were learning it or how to apply it to new situations" (Resnick, 2017, p. 53). Bransford, Brown and Cocking (2000) found that students often struggled to know which formula to use in different situations they also found that transfer of knowledge to new situations was affected by the use of memorization. They state, “transfer is affected by the degree to which people learn with understanding, rather than merely memorizing sets of facts or following a fixed set of procedures" (p. 55). Learning that is tied to a purpose, to a reason is conditionalized which prevents it from becoming inert.
Projects
Bransford, Brown, & Cocking (2000) found that many students in post-secondary institutes had a real gap in their understanding of research practices and the inquiry model. "although students scored very well on facts about history, they were largely unacquainted with models of inquiry, with real historical thinking. They had no way of making sense of the contradictory claims” (p. 42). Students need to be exposed to critical inquiry practices in order to develop the skill sets required in many fields of research. Through the use of projects students are able to develop a stronger understanding of foundational principles. Bransford, Brown, & Cocking (2000) found that "younger students, taught by the inquiry-based approach, had a better grasp of the fundamental principles of physics" (p.12). Through carefully designed projects young children can begin to understand complex concepts and principles.
Thinking routines often employed during critical inquiry projects also help student develop lifelong learning skills. By activating prior knowledge and acknowledging wonderings teachers are able to more effectively help students grow in understanding. "A critical feature of effective teaching is that it elicits from students their pre-existing understandings of the subject matter to be taught and provides opportunities to build-on challenge their initials wonderings" (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000 p.15). A key component of critical inquiry projects is the need to support a claim with evidence. Requiring students to provide evidence helps students come to understand where holes in their argument and understanding lie.
It is important to note that there is a difference between projects that are hands-on learning activities and critical inquiry projects. "There are important differences between tasks and projects that encourage hands-on doing and those that encourage doing with understanding, knowledge-centred environment emphasizes the latter" (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000 p.24). Purpose and an inquiry approach are essential components of projects if the goal is deep understanding and transfer. "A project-based approach is the best path to fluency, whether for writing or coding. Becoming fluent helps you to develop your thinking, develop your voice, and develop your identity" (Resnick, 2017, p. 48). If the goal is to create fluency and deep understandings in a subject area projects are a very effective method of achieving that.
Passions
Bransford, Brown, and Cocking (2000) speak about the concept of an accomplished novice and the role it plays in learning. They state, “a model that assumes that experts have all the answers is very different from the model of accomplished novice, who is proud of his or her achievements and yet also realizes there is more to learn" (p. 50). The ability to see the limits in one’s current understanding and knowledge and being able to then find ways to remedy the situation is key in the world of research. Thinking routines such as I use to think but now I think (Ritchart, Church, 2020) are one way to develop this flexible thinking and growth mindset in students. In order to talk about what students, use to think they must be learning about an area where they already know some information but have a desire to learn more, an area they are passionate about.
The use of student passions and interests to teach curricular content and skills not only develops flexible thinking and a growth mindset but it also improves motivation. "Students are motivated to spend the time needed to learn complex subjects and to solve problems they find interesting. Opportunities to use knowledge to create products and benefits for others are particularly motivating for students" (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000 p.77). Motivation affects the amount of time students are willing to spend learning about something and it also affects the way students approach challenges they face while learning. Resnick (2017) states, "The only way they can persist and persevere through all the challenges is if they work on topics that they're truly passionate about" (p. 72). When learning tasks become challenging, interests and passions motivate students to keep going, to keep trying, to persevere.
The use of passions in the classroom also affects transfer of learning. "When people work on projects that they are interested in, it seems pretty obvious that they'll be more motivated and willing to work longer and harder- but that's not all. Their passion and motivation make them more likely to connect with new ideas and develop new ways of thinking" (Resnick, 2017, p. 68). This idea is supported in the work of Bransford, Brown, & Cocking (2000). They speak about the way in which experts are able to make connections between different problems and events that novices do not and the importance this skill plays in the speed and effectiveness of approaching related problems and situations. Through the use of passions students begin to train their brains to make connections between topics and skills because they already have an invested interest in the topic.
Play
We know that young children come to school with many experiences and understandings of the world around them. We know that they are not blank slates on which a story begins to be written when they enter the classroom. Through play students explore their understandings and test theories that they have. Carefully observing and planning play activities helps us better understand where students are in their understanding and what next steps need to be taken. By presenting a challenge or a question to be solved and then allowing students to investigate, play, explore and reflect they are able to develop a stronger understanding of the knowledge we are seeking to share with them. Bransford, Brown, & Cocking (2000) state "providing students with opportunities to first grapple with specific information relevant to a topic has been shown to create a "time for telling" that enables them to learn much more from an organized lecture than students who did not first have these specific opportunities" (p. 58). Play helps to level the field of experience and exposure as well. It provides opportunities for students to engage with the world and materials in ways that help make sense of the information teachers share in more formal means.
Play provides a non-threatening way for students to share their understandings as well. Taylor and Marienau (2016) speak about how when presented with a threat such as a test the human brain goes into a primal state of fight or flight in which learning does not occur and the ability to show what is understood is hindered. They state, “People in a state of heightened anxiety, such as during tests or performance appraisals, are on brain overload” (p.7). Play provides an opportunity for students to demonstrate their understandings in a minimal stressed environment.
Peers
Learning with peers is motivating and a good reflection of how learning occurs outside of a classroom setting. Bransford, Brown & Cocking (2000) state, "teachers must attend to designing classroom activities and helping students organize their work in ways that promote the kind of intellectual camaraderie and the attitudes toward learning that build a sense of community" (p.25). This camaraderie mirrors what thinking looks like outside of the classroom and how we as humans naturally tackle problems as we encounter them. Resnick (2017) states, “most thinking is done in connection with other people: we share ideas, get reactions from other people, build upon one another’s ideas” (p.91). Feeling like you are a part of something and belong is a basic human need. Providing learning opportunities for students to engage in learning from and with one another increases accountability for students and provides students with purpose.
Portfolios
When assessing students our methods frequently measure factual knowledge but fail to measure the depth of understanding that students have or the ability to transfer knowledge and understandings to new situations. Bransford, Brown, & Cocking (2000) state "feedback that signals progress in memorizing facts and formulas is different from feedback that signals the state of students' understanding" (p. 59). Our traditional methods of assessing do not accurately demonstrate students learning and growth within the twenty first century competencies as laid out by Albert Education (2013). The use of digital portfolios as an assessment tool allows parents, students, and school staff to reflect on student thinking and skill development in the area of competencies beyond a final project or test. “Rather than trying to assess what children have learned by giving them an exam with right/wrong answers, we should work with children to document their projects, illustrating what they created, how they created it, and why” (Resnick, 2017, p. 152). The process of student learning can be documented and shared through the use of portfolios. The use of self-reflection tools, such as portfolios, better prepared students to transfer learning. "Through reflection, people make connections among ideas, develop a deeper understanding of which strategies are the most productive, and become better prepared to transfer what they've learned to new situations in the future" (Resnick, 2017, p. 71). Generative dialogue around the contents of a portfolio can lead to transfer of learning as well as students playing an active role in deciding next steps for their learning. Portfolios provide an opportunity for students to develop metacognitive skills. “Teaching practices congruent with a metacognitive approach to learning include those that focus on sense making, self-assessment, and reflection on what worked and what needs improving" (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000, p.12). Portfolios provide an opportunity for students to look at submissions and reflect on what improvements they see from previous artefacts. Portfolio use also provides opportunities for students to express why they want a specific learning artefact included and what that artefact demonstrates. This provides more ownership of learning and allows students to practice metacognitive skills and develop an internal locus of control.
Purpose
Using topics and activities that have a purpose beyond simply learning facts is supported by learning theory. Bransford, Brown and Cocking (2000) point out that “often there is only superficial coverage of facts before moving on to the next topic; there is little time to develop important organizing ideas" (National Research Council, 2000, p. 42). Memorizing facts and formulas does not provide context or reasons for learning. When students solve a set of disconnected problems, they often end up with disconnected knowledge, without an understanding of why they were learning it or how to apply it to new situations" (Resnick, 2017, p. 53). Bransford, Brown and Cocking (2000) found that students often struggled to know which formula to use in different situations they also found that transfer of knowledge to new situations was affected by the use of memorization. They state, “transfer is affected by the degree to which people learn with understanding, rather than merely memorizing sets of facts or following a fixed set of procedures" (p. 55). Learning that is tied to a purpose, to a reason is conditionalized which prevents it from becoming inert.
Projects
Bransford, Brown, & Cocking (2000) found that many students in post-secondary institutes had a real gap in their understanding of research practices and the inquiry model. "although students scored very well on facts about history, they were largely unacquainted with models of inquiry, with real historical thinking. They had no way of making sense of the contradictory claims” (p. 42). Students need to be exposed to critical inquiry practices in order to develop the skill sets required in many fields of research. Through the use of projects students are able to develop a stronger understanding of foundational principles. Bransford, Brown, & Cocking (2000) found that "younger students, taught by the inquiry-based approach, had a better grasp of the fundamental principles of physics" (p.12). Through carefully designed projects young children can begin to understand complex concepts and principles.
Thinking routines often employed during critical inquiry projects also help student develop lifelong learning skills. By activating prior knowledge and acknowledging wonderings teachers are able to more effectively help students grow in understanding. "A critical feature of effective teaching is that it elicits from students their pre-existing understandings of the subject matter to be taught and provides opportunities to build-on challenge their initials wonderings" (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000 p.15). A key component of critical inquiry projects is the need to support a claim with evidence. Requiring students to provide evidence helps students come to understand where holes in their argument and understanding lie.
It is important to note that there is a difference between projects that are hands-on learning activities and critical inquiry projects. "There are important differences between tasks and projects that encourage hands-on doing and those that encourage doing with understanding, knowledge-centred environment emphasizes the latter" (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000 p.24). Purpose and an inquiry approach are essential components of projects if the goal is deep understanding and transfer. "A project-based approach is the best path to fluency, whether for writing or coding. Becoming fluent helps you to develop your thinking, develop your voice, and develop your identity" (Resnick, 2017, p. 48). If the goal is to create fluency and deep understandings in a subject area projects are a very effective method of achieving that.
Passions
Bransford, Brown, and Cocking (2000) speak about the concept of an accomplished novice and the role it plays in learning. They state, “a model that assumes that experts have all the answers is very different from the model of accomplished novice, who is proud of his or her achievements and yet also realizes there is more to learn" (p. 50). The ability to see the limits in one’s current understanding and knowledge and being able to then find ways to remedy the situation is key in the world of research. Thinking routines such as I use to think but now I think (Ritchart, Church, 2020) are one way to develop this flexible thinking and growth mindset in students. In order to talk about what students, use to think they must be learning about an area where they already know some information but have a desire to learn more, an area they are passionate about.
The use of student passions and interests to teach curricular content and skills not only develops flexible thinking and a growth mindset but it also improves motivation. "Students are motivated to spend the time needed to learn complex subjects and to solve problems they find interesting. Opportunities to use knowledge to create products and benefits for others are particularly motivating for students" (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000 p.77). Motivation affects the amount of time students are willing to spend learning about something and it also affects the way students approach challenges they face while learning. Resnick (2017) states, "The only way they can persist and persevere through all the challenges is if they work on topics that they're truly passionate about" (p. 72). When learning tasks become challenging, interests and passions motivate students to keep going, to keep trying, to persevere.
The use of passions in the classroom also affects transfer of learning. "When people work on projects that they are interested in, it seems pretty obvious that they'll be more motivated and willing to work longer and harder- but that's not all. Their passion and motivation make them more likely to connect with new ideas and develop new ways of thinking" (Resnick, 2017, p. 68). This idea is supported in the work of Bransford, Brown, & Cocking (2000). They speak about the way in which experts are able to make connections between different problems and events that novices do not and the importance this skill plays in the speed and effectiveness of approaching related problems and situations. Through the use of passions students begin to train their brains to make connections between topics and skills because they already have an invested interest in the topic.
Play
We know that young children come to school with many experiences and understandings of the world around them. We know that they are not blank slates on which a story begins to be written when they enter the classroom. Through play students explore their understandings and test theories that they have. Carefully observing and planning play activities helps us better understand where students are in their understanding and what next steps need to be taken. By presenting a challenge or a question to be solved and then allowing students to investigate, play, explore and reflect they are able to develop a stronger understanding of the knowledge we are seeking to share with them. Bransford, Brown, & Cocking (2000) state "providing students with opportunities to first grapple with specific information relevant to a topic has been shown to create a "time for telling" that enables them to learn much more from an organized lecture than students who did not first have these specific opportunities" (p. 58). Play helps to level the field of experience and exposure as well. It provides opportunities for students to engage with the world and materials in ways that help make sense of the information teachers share in more formal means.
Play provides a non-threatening way for students to share their understandings as well. Taylor and Marienau (2016) speak about how when presented with a threat such as a test the human brain goes into a primal state of fight or flight in which learning does not occur and the ability to show what is understood is hindered. They state, “People in a state of heightened anxiety, such as during tests or performance appraisals, are on brain overload” (p.7). Play provides an opportunity for students to demonstrate their understandings in a minimal stressed environment.
Peers
Learning with peers is motivating and a good reflection of how learning occurs outside of a classroom setting. Bransford, Brown & Cocking (2000) state, "teachers must attend to designing classroom activities and helping students organize their work in ways that promote the kind of intellectual camaraderie and the attitudes toward learning that build a sense of community" (p.25). This camaraderie mirrors what thinking looks like outside of the classroom and how we as humans naturally tackle problems as we encounter them. Resnick (2017) states, “most thinking is done in connection with other people: we share ideas, get reactions from other people, build upon one another’s ideas” (p.91). Feeling like you are a part of something and belong is a basic human need. Providing learning opportunities for students to engage in learning from and with one another increases accountability for students and provides students with purpose.
Portfolios
When assessing students our methods frequently measure factual knowledge but fail to measure the depth of understanding that students have or the ability to transfer knowledge and understandings to new situations. Bransford, Brown, & Cocking (2000) state "feedback that signals progress in memorizing facts and formulas is different from feedback that signals the state of students' understanding" (p. 59). Our traditional methods of assessing do not accurately demonstrate students learning and growth within the twenty first century competencies as laid out by Albert Education (2013). The use of digital portfolios as an assessment tool allows parents, students, and school staff to reflect on student thinking and skill development in the area of competencies beyond a final project or test. “Rather than trying to assess what children have learned by giving them an exam with right/wrong answers, we should work with children to document their projects, illustrating what they created, how they created it, and why” (Resnick, 2017, p. 152). The process of student learning can be documented and shared through the use of portfolios. The use of self-reflection tools, such as portfolios, better prepared students to transfer learning. "Through reflection, people make connections among ideas, develop a deeper understanding of which strategies are the most productive, and become better prepared to transfer what they've learned to new situations in the future" (Resnick, 2017, p. 71). Generative dialogue around the contents of a portfolio can lead to transfer of learning as well as students playing an active role in deciding next steps for their learning. Portfolios provide an opportunity for students to develop metacognitive skills. “Teaching practices congruent with a metacognitive approach to learning include those that focus on sense making, self-assessment, and reflection on what worked and what needs improving" (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000, p.12). Portfolios provide an opportunity for students to look at submissions and reflect on what improvements they see from previous artefacts. Portfolio use also provides opportunities for students to express why they want a specific learning artefact included and what that artefact demonstrates. This provides more ownership of learning and allows students to practice metacognitive skills and develop an internal locus of control.